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the important issues of the day

  • 1 issue

    'iʃu:
    1. verb
    1) (to give or send out, or to distribute, especially officially: The police issued a description of the criminal; Rifles were issued to the troops.) distribuir
    2) (to flow or come out (from something): A strange noise issued from the room.) salir

    2. noun
    1) (the act of issuing or process of being issued: Stamp collectors like to buy new stamps on the day of issue.) emisión
    2) (one number in the series of a newspaper, magazine etc: Have you seen the latest issue of that magazine?) número
    3) (a subject for discussion and argument: The question of pay is not an important issue at the moment.) tema, asunto
    issue1 n
    1. asunto / cuestión / tema
    2. número
    3. emisión
    issue2 vb distribuir / proveer
    tr['ɪʃʊː]
    1 (subject, topic) tema nombre masculino, cuestión nombre femenino, asunto
    ■ where do you stand on this issue? ¿cuál es tu postura respecto a esta cuestión?
    2 (of newspaper, magazine, etc) número
    ■ have you got this month's issue of Vax? ¿tienes el Vax de este mes?
    ■ do you sell back issues? ¿vendéis números atrasados?
    3 (of stamps, shares, back notes, etc) emisión nombre femenino; (of book) publicación nombre femenino
    4 (of passport, licence) expedición nombre femenino
    5 (of equipment, supplies, etc) distribución nombre femenino, reparto, suministro
    ■ where's the point of issue? ¿dónde está el punto de reparto?
    6 formal use (emergence - of water, blood) flujo
    7 formal use (children) descendencia
    8 formal use (result, outcome) resultado, consecuencia, desenlace nombre masculino
    1 (book, article) publicar
    2 (stamps, shares, banknotes, etc) emitir
    3 (passport, visa) expedir
    4 (equipment, supplies, etc) distribuir, repartir, suministrar, proporcionar
    5 (order, instruction) dar; (statement, warning) dar, hacer público; (writ, summons) dictar, expedir; (decree) promulgar; (warrant) expedir
    1 formal use (liquid, blood) fluir, manar; (smell etc) salir
    2 formal use (result) resultar ( from, de), provenir ( from, de), derivar(se) ( from, de)
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    at issue en cuestión, en discusión
    to address an issue tratar una cuestión
    to cloud/confuse the issue complicar el asunto
    to die without issue morir sin dejar descendencia
    to evade/duck the issue eludir el problema, evitar el tema
    to force the issue forzar una decisión
    to make an issue (out) of something dar demasiada importancia a algo, insistir demasiado sobre algo
    to take issue with somebody manifestar su desacuerdo con alguien, discrepar con alguien
    issue ['ɪ.ʃu:] v, - sued ; - suing vi
    1) emerge: emerger, salir, fluir
    2) descend: descender (dícese de los padres o antepasados específicos)
    3) emanate, result: emanar, surgir, resultar
    issue vt
    1) emit: emitir
    2) distribute: emitir, distribuir
    to issue a new stamp: emitir un sello nuevo
    3) publish: publicar
    1) emergence, flow: emergencia f, flujo m
    2) progeny: descendencia f, progenie f
    3) outcome, result: desenlace m, resultado m, consecuencia f
    4) matter, question: asunto m, cuestión f
    5) publication: publicación f, distribución f, emisión f
    6) : número m (de un periódico o una revista)
    n.
    • número (Revista) s.m.
    n.
    • cuestión s.f.
    • distribución s.f.
    • edición s.f.
    • emisión s.f.
    • entrega s.f.
    • impresión s.f.
    • nacimiento s.m.
    • problema s.m.
    • suceso s.m.
    • tema de discusión s.m.,f.
    • tirada s.f.
    v.
    • distribuir v.
    • emitir (Banca) v.
    • exhalar v.
    • expedir v.
    • nacer v.
    • surgir v.
    'ɪʃuː, 'ɪʃjuː, ɪsjuː
    I
    1) c ( subject discussed) tema m, cuestión f, asunto m

    to face the issue — enfrentarse al or afrontar el problema

    let's not cloud o confuse o fog the issue — no nos vayamos por la tangente, no desviemos la atención del verdadero problema

    at issue: the matter at issue is... de lo que se trata es de...; to make an issue of something: I don't want to make an issue of it but... no quiero insistir demasiado sobre el tema pero..., no quiero exagerar la importancia del asunto pero...; to take issue with somebody/something — discrepar or disentir* de or con alguien/en or de algo

    2)
    a) u ( of documents) expedición f; ( of library books) préstamo m; ( of tickets) venta f, expedición f; ( of supplies) reparto m
    b) u c (of stamps, shares, bank notes) emisión f
    c) c (of newspaper, magazine) número m
    3)
    a) u c ( emergence) (frml) flujo m
    b) (outcome, result) (no pl) desenlace m
    4) ( progeny) (frml) (+ sing or pl vb) descendencia f

    II
    1.
    a) ( give out) \<\<statement/report\>\> hacer* público; \<\<instructions\>\> dar*; \<\<tickets/visas\>\> expedir*; \<\<library books\>\> prestar; \<\<bank notes/stamps/shares\>\> emitir; \<\<writ/summons\>\> dictar, expedir*

    to issue something TO somebody, to issue somebody WITH something: the teacher issued library cards to the pupils el profesor distribuyó tarjetas de lector entre los alumnos; we can issue you with the necessary documents — le podemos proporcionar or suministrar los documentos necesarios

    b) issuing pres p <house/bank> emisor

    2.
    vi (frml)
    1) ( result)

    to issue FROM something — derivar(se) or surgir* de algo (frml)

    2) ( emerge) salir*; \<\<liquid\>\> fluir*, manar
    ['ɪʃuː]
    1. N
    1) (=matter, question) asunto m, cuestión f

    I was earning a lot of money but that was not the issue — ganaba mucho dinero, pero esa no era la cuestión

    • we need to address this issue — tenemos que tratar este asunto or esta cuestión or este tema

    • the point at issue — el punto en cuestión

    they were at issue over... — estuvieron discutiendo (sobre)...

    • to avoid the issue — eludir or frm soslayar el problema

    • to cloud or confuse the issue — crear confusión

    • to face the issue — hacer frente a la cuestión or al problema, afrontar la situación

    • to force the issue — forzar una decisión

    • to join issue with sb — enfrentarse a or con algn

    • to make an issue of sth, I think we should make an issue of this — creo que deberíamos insistir en este punto

    do you want to make an issue of it? — ¿quieres hacer un problema de esto?

    • the main or real issue is... — lo fundamental es...

    • it's not a political issue — no es una cuestión política

    • to take issue with sth/sb — discrepar de algo/de or con algn

    I feel I must take issue with you on or over that — permítame que discrepe de usted en or sobre eso

    side 3.
    2) [of shares, stamps, banknotes] emisión f ; [of library book] préstamo m ; [of document] expedición f ; [of rations] distribución f, reparto m

    • an army issue blanket — una manta del ejército

    • a standard issue army rifle — un rifle del ejército de fabricación estándar

    3) (=copy) [of magazine] ejemplar m, número m

    the March issue — el ejemplar or número de marzo

    • back issue — ejemplar m or número m atrasado

    4) frm (=outcome) resultado m, consecuencia f
    5) (Jur) (=offspring) descendencia f
    6) (Med) flujo m
    2.
    VT [+ library book] prestar; [+ tickets] emitir; [+ shares, stamps] poner en circulación, emitir; [+ rations] distribuir, repartir; [+ order] dar; [+ statement, proclamation] hacer público; [+ decree] promulgar; [+ passport, certificate] expedir; [+ licence] facilitar; [+ writ, summons] extender

    • to issue sth to sb, issue sb with sth — dar algo a algn

    3. VI
    1) (=come forth)

    • to issue from sth — [blood, water] brotar or salir de algo; [sound] salir de algo; [report, account] provenir de algo

    reports issuing from opposition sources say that... — informes provenientes de fuentes de la oposición afirman que...

    2) (=derive) derivar ( from de)
    3) frm (=have as result)

    • to issue in sth — resultar en algo, dar algo como resultado

    4.
    CPD

    issue price N — precio m de emisión

    * * *
    ['ɪʃuː, 'ɪʃjuː, ɪsjuː]
    I
    1) c ( subject discussed) tema m, cuestión f, asunto m

    to face the issue — enfrentarse al or afrontar el problema

    let's not cloud o confuse o fog the issue — no nos vayamos por la tangente, no desviemos la atención del verdadero problema

    at issue: the matter at issue is... de lo que se trata es de...; to make an issue of something: I don't want to make an issue of it but... no quiero insistir demasiado sobre el tema pero..., no quiero exagerar la importancia del asunto pero...; to take issue with somebody/something — discrepar or disentir* de or con alguien/en or de algo

    2)
    a) u ( of documents) expedición f; ( of library books) préstamo m; ( of tickets) venta f, expedición f; ( of supplies) reparto m
    b) u c (of stamps, shares, bank notes) emisión f
    c) c (of newspaper, magazine) número m
    3)
    a) u c ( emergence) (frml) flujo m
    b) (outcome, result) (no pl) desenlace m
    4) ( progeny) (frml) (+ sing or pl vb) descendencia f

    II
    1.
    a) ( give out) \<\<statement/report\>\> hacer* público; \<\<instructions\>\> dar*; \<\<tickets/visas\>\> expedir*; \<\<library books\>\> prestar; \<\<bank notes/stamps/shares\>\> emitir; \<\<writ/summons\>\> dictar, expedir*

    to issue something TO somebody, to issue somebody WITH something: the teacher issued library cards to the pupils el profesor distribuyó tarjetas de lector entre los alumnos; we can issue you with the necessary documents — le podemos proporcionar or suministrar los documentos necesarios

    b) issuing pres p <house/bank> emisor

    2.
    vi (frml)
    1) ( result)

    to issue FROM something — derivar(se) or surgir* de algo (frml)

    2) ( emerge) salir*; \<\<liquid\>\> fluir*, manar

    English-spanish dictionary > issue

  • 2 issue

    1.
    ['ɪʃuː], ['ɪsjuː]noun
    1) (point in question) Frage, die

    what is at issue here? — worum geht es [hier] eigentlich?

    evade or dodge the issue — ausweichen

    the point at issue — der strittige Punkt; worum es geht

    take issue with somebody over something — sich mit jemandem auf eine Diskussion über etwas (Akk.) einlassen

    2) (giving out) Ausgabe, die; (of document) Ausstellung, die; (of shares) Emission, die

    date of issue — Ausgabedatum, das; (of document) Ausstellungsdatum, das; (of stamps) Ausgabetag, der

    3) (of magazine, journal, etc.) Ausgabe, die
    4) (total number of copies) Auflage, die
    5) (quantity of coins) Emissionszahl, die; (quantity of stamps) Auflage, die
    6) (result, outcome) Ergebnis, das; Ausgang, der

    decide the issue — den Ausschlag geben

    2. transitive verb
    1) (give out) ausgeben; ausstellen [Pass, Visum, Zeugnis, Haft-, Durchsuchungsbefehl]; erteilen [Lizenz, Befehl]

    issue somebody with something — etwas an jemanden austeilen

    2) (publish) herausgeben [Publikation]; herausbringen [Publikation, Münze, Briefmarke]; emittieren [Wertpapiere]; geben [Warnung]
    3) (supply) ausgeben (to an + Akk.)
    3. intransitive verb
    [Personen:] herausströmen ( from aus); [Gas, Flüssigkeit:] austreten ( from aus); [Rauch:] heraus-, hervorquellen ( from aus); [Ton, Geräusch:] hervor-, herausdringen ( from aus)
    * * *
    ['iʃu:] 1. verb
    1) (to give or send out, or to distribute, especially officially: The police issued a description of the criminal; Rifles were issued to the troops.) (her)ausgeben
    2) (to flow or come out (from something): A strange noise issued from the room.) herauskommen
    2. noun
    1) (the act of issuing or process of being issued: Stamp collectors like to buy new stamps on the day of issue.) die Ausgabe
    2) (one number in the series of a newspaper, magazine etc: Have you seen the latest issue of that magazine?) die Ausgabe
    3) (a subject for discussion and argument: The question of pay is not an important issue at the moment.) die Streitfrage
    * * *
    is·sue
    [ˈɪʃu:]
    I. n
    1. (topic) Thema nt; (question) Frage f; (dispute) Streitfrage f; (affair) Angelegenheit f; (problem) Problem nt
    she has changed her mind on many \issues sie hat ihre Einstellung in vielen Punkten geändert
    they had prepared a report on the \issues of management and staff sie hatten einen Bericht über Management- und Personalfragen vorbereitet
    what is the \issue? worum geht es [hier]?
    that's not the \issue! darum geht es doch gar nicht!
    what I want isn't the \issue es geht hier nicht darum, was ich will
    the main \issue is how/whether... die zentrale Frage ist, wie/ob...
    familiy \issues Familienangelegenheiten pl
    the point at \issue der strittige Punkt
    side \issue Nebensache f
    don't worry, that's just a side \issue keine Sorge, das ist nur nebensächlich
    the \issue at stake der springende Punkt
    a burning \issue eine brennende Frage
    ethical \issue ethische Frage
    the real \issues die Kernprobleme pl
    to address an \issue ein Thema ansprechen
    to avoid the \issue [dem Thema] ausweichen
    to [not] be at [or an] \issue [nicht] zur Debatte stehen
    to confuse an \issue etwas durcheinanderbringen
    to make an \issue of sth etw aufbauschen, um etw akk Aufsehen machen
    to raise an \issue eine Frage aufwerfen
    to take \issue with sb [over sth] ( form) sich akk mit jdm auf eine Diskussion [über etw akk] einlassen
    at \issue strittig
    2. (edition) of a magazine, newspaper Ausgabe f
    date of \issue Erscheinungsdatum nt
    latest \issue aktuelle Ausgabe
    3. no pl (copies produced) Auflage f
    there was an \issue of 60,000 in March im März lag die Auflage bei 60.000
    4. no pl (making available) of goods, notes, stamps Ausgabe f; of shares Emission f, Ausgabe f; of a fund, loan Auflegung f; of a cheque, document Ausstellung f
    date of \issue of a passport, cheque Ausstellungsdatum nt
    the \issue of a statement die Abgabe einer Erklärung
    6. FIN, STOCKEX
    \issue at par Pari-Emission f fachspr
    \issue of securities Wertpapieremission f
    new \issue Neuemission f
    special \issue Sonderausgabe f; (stamp) Sondermarke f
    7. no pl (coming out)
    \issue of blood Blutung f
    8. no pl LAW ( or dated: offspring) Nachkommen pl
    9. no pl ( liter or dated: result) Ausgang m
    to carry sth to a successful \issue etw zu einem erfolgreichen Abschluss bringen
    II. vt
    1. (produce)
    ▪ to \issue sth licence, permit etw ausstellen [o ausfertigen]
    to \issue an arrest warrant AM einen Haftbefehl erlassen [o erteilen]
    to \issue banknotes Banknoten in Umlauf bringen
    to \issue bonds FIN Obligationen ausgeben [o emittieren]
    to \issue a newsletter ein Rundschreiben veröffentlichen
    to \issue a passport einen Pass ausstellen
    to \issue a patent ein Patent erteilen
    to \issue shares/a fund Aktien/einen Fonds auflegen
    2. (make known)
    to \issue a call for sth zu etw dat aufrufen
    to \issue a communique ein Kommuniqué herausgeben
    to \issue an invitation/a warning eine Einladung/Warnung aussprechen
    to \issue an order to sb jdm einen Befehl erteilen
    to \issue a statement eine Stellungnahme abgeben
    to \issue an ultimatum ein Ultimatum stellen
    ▪ to \issue sb with sth jdn mit etw dat ausstatten [o versorgen]; (distribute to) etw an jdn austeilen
    III. vi ( form)
    1. (come out) ausströmen; smoke hervorquellen
    ▪ to \issue from sth aus etw dat dringen; liquid, gas also aus etw dat strömen; smoke aus etw dat quellen
    2. (be born out of)
    ▪ to \issue from sth einer S. gen entspringen
    * * *
    ['ɪʃuː]
    1. vt
    1) (= give, send out) passport, documents, certificate, driving licence ausstellen; tickets, library books ausgeben; shares, banknotes ausgeben, emittieren; stamps herausgeben; coins ausgeben; order erteilen (
    to +dat); warning, declaration, statement abgeben, aussprechen; proclamation erlassen; details bekannt geben; ultimatum stellen

    to issue sb with a visa, to issue a visa to sb — jdm ein Visum ausstellen

    2) (= publish) book, newspaper herausgeben
    3) (= supply) rations, rifles, ammunition ausgeben

    to issue sth to sb/sb with sth — etw an jdn ausgeben

    all troops are issued with... — alle Truppen sind mit... ausgerüstet

    2. vi
    (from aus) (liquid, gas) austreten; (smoke, blood, water) quellen, austreten; (sound) (hervor- or heraus)dringen; (people etc) (heraus)strömen

    his actions issue from a desire to help — seine Handlungen entspringen dem Wunsch zu helfen

    the sewage/river issues into the sea — das Abwasser fließt/der Fluss mündet ins Meer

    3. n
    1) (= question) Frage f; (= matter) Angelegenheit f; (problematic) Problem nt

    the main or key issue is reducing unemployment — das Wichtigste ist es, die Arbeitslosigkeit zu verringern

    she raised the issue of human rights —

    the issue is whether... — es geht darum or die Frage ist, ob...

    this matter/question is not at issue — diese Angelegenheit/Frage steht nicht zur Debatte

    do you want to make an issue of it? (inf) — du willst dich wohl mit mir anlegen?

    to avoid the issue — ausweichen; (in reply also) ausweichend antworten

    2) (= outcome, result) Ergebnis nt

    that decided the issue — das war entscheidend or ausschlaggebend

    3) (= giving out, that given out) (of banknotes, shares, coins, stamps etc) Ausgabe f; (of shares) Emission f, Ausgabe f

    issue desk — Ausgabe(schalter m ) f

    4) (= handing-out) Ausgabe f; (= supplying, thing supplied) Lieferung f

    the issue of guns to the troops —

    5) (of book etc) Herausgabe f; (= book etc) Ausgabe f
    6) (of liquid, gas) Ausströmen nt
    7) (JUR: offspring) Nachkommenschaft f
    * * *
    issue [ˈıʃuː; Br auch ˈısjuː]
    A s
    1. Ausgabe f, Erlass m (von Befehlen etc):
    issue of orders Befehlsausgabe
    2. WIRTSCH Ausgabe f (von Banknoten, Wertpapieren etc), Emission f (von Wertpapieren), Begebung f, Auflegung f (einer Anleihe), Ausstellung f (eines Dokuments, Schecks, Wechsels etc):
    issue of securities Effektenemission;
    issue of shares (bes US stocks) Aktienausgabe;
    issue price Zeichnungs-, Emissionspreis m; → academic.ru/5327/bank">bank1 A 1
    3. TYPO
    a) Heraus-, Ausgabe f, Veröffentlichung f, Auflage f (eines Buches)
    b) Ausgabe f, Nummer f (einer Zeitung)
    4. Streitfall m, -frage f, -punkt m, (strittiger oder wesentlicher) Punkt:
    issue of fact (law) JUR Tatsachen-(Rechts)frage f;
    at issue strittig, streitig, zur Debatte stehend;
    point at issue umstrittener Punkt, strittige Frage;
    the point at issue is … es dreht sich darum, …;
    the national prestige is at issue es geht um das nationale Prestige, das nationale Prestige steht auf dem Spiel;
    be at issue with sb mit jemandem im Streit liegen oder uneinig sein;
    that decided the issue das war ausschlaggebend oder entscheidend;
    evade the issue ausweichen;
    make an issue of sth etwas aufbauschen oder dramatisieren;
    join ( oder take) issue with sb sich auf eine Auseinandersetzung einlassen mit jemandem (on über akk)
    5. Kernfrage f, (akutes) Problem, Angelpunkt m:
    this question raises the whole issue diese Frage schneidet den ganzen Sachverhalt an
    6. Ausgang m, Ergebnis n, Resultat n, Schluss m:
    in the issue schließlich;
    bring sth to an issue etwas zur Entscheidung bringen;
    force an issue eine Entscheidung erzwingen
    7. besonders MIL Ausgabe f, Zu-, Verteilung f
    8. JUR Nachkommen(schaft) pl(f), (Leibes)Erben pl, Abkömmlinge pl:
    die without issue ohne Nachkommen oder kinderlos sterben
    9. Abfluss m, Abzug m, Öffnung f, Mündung f
    10. MED
    a) Ausfluss m (von Eiter, Blut etc)
    b) eiterndes Geschwür
    11. WIRTSCH Erlös m, Ertrag m, Einkünfte pl (aus Landbesitz etc)
    12. Herausgehen n, -kommen n:
    free issue and entry freies Kommen und Gehen
    B v/t
    1. Befehle etc ausgeben, auch JUR einen Haftbefehl erlassen
    2. WIRTSCH Banknoten, Wertpapiere etc ausgeben, in Umlauf setzen, emittieren, eine Anleihe begeben, auflegen, ein Dokument, einen Wechsel, Scheck etc ausstellen:
    issued capital effektiv ausgegebenes Kapital
    3. ein Buch, eine Zeitung herausgeben, veröffentlichen, auflegen, publizieren
    4. besonders MIL
    a) Essen, Munition etc ausgeben, zu-, verteilen
    b) ausrüsten, beliefern ( beide:
    with mit)
    C v/i
    1. heraus-, hervorkommen
    2. hervorstürzen, -brechen
    3. herausfließen, -strömen
    4. a) (from) entspringen (dat), herkommen, -rühren (von)
    b) abstammen ( from von)
    5. herauskommen, herausgegeben werden (Schriften etc)
    6. ergehen (Befehl etc)
    7. enden (in in dat)
    * * *
    1.
    ['ɪʃuː], ['ɪsjuː]noun
    1) (point in question) Frage, die

    what is at issue here? — worum geht es [hier] eigentlich?

    evade or dodge the issue — ausweichen

    the point at issue — der strittige Punkt; worum es geht

    2) (giving out) Ausgabe, die; (of document) Ausstellung, die; (of shares) Emission, die

    date of issue — Ausgabedatum, das; (of document) Ausstellungsdatum, das; (of stamps) Ausgabetag, der

    3) (of magazine, journal, etc.) Ausgabe, die
    4) (total number of copies) Auflage, die
    5) (quantity of coins) Emissionszahl, die; (quantity of stamps) Auflage, die
    6) (result, outcome) Ergebnis, das; Ausgang, der
    2. transitive verb
    1) (give out) ausgeben; ausstellen [Pass, Visum, Zeugnis, Haft-, Durchsuchungsbefehl]; erteilen [Lizenz, Befehl]
    2) (publish) herausgeben [Publikation]; herausbringen [Publikation, Münze, Briefmarke]; emittieren [Wertpapiere]; geben [Warnung]
    3) (supply) ausgeben (to an + Akk.)
    3. intransitive verb
    [Personen:] herausströmen ( from aus); [Gas, Flüssigkeit:] austreten ( from aus); [Rauch:] heraus-, hervorquellen ( from aus); [Ton, Geräusch:] hervor-, herausdringen ( from aus)
    * * *
    n.
    Auflegen -ungen (einer Anleihe) n.
    Ausfertigung f.
    Ausgabe -n f.
    Ausgang -ë m.
    Ausleihe -ungen f.
    Ausstellen n.
    Effektenemission f.
    Emission -en f.
    Ergebnis -se n.
    Fall ¨-e m.
    Kernpunkt m.
    Nummer -n f.
    Problem -e n.
    Sachverhalt m.
    Schluss ¨-e m.
    Streitfall m.
    Streitfrage f.
    leibliche Nachkommenschaft f. v.
    auflegen v.
    ausgeben (Banknoten) v.
    ausgeben v.
    ausrüsten v.
    ausstellen v.
    emittieren (Wirtschaft) v.
    erteilen (Befehle) v.
    herausgeben v.
    herauskommen v.
    hervorbrechen v.
    in Umlauf setzen ausdr.
    liefern v.
    publizieren (Bücher) v.
    verteilen v.
    zuteilen v.

    English-german dictionary > issue

  • 3 great

    ɡreit
    1) (of a better quality than average; important: a great writer; Churchill was a great man.) grande, gran (antes del nombre), importante
    2) (very large, larger etc than average: a great crowd of people at the football match.) grande, gran (antes del nombre)
    3) (of a high degree: Take great care of that book.) mucho; especial
    4) (very pleasant: We had a great time at the party.) maravilloso, espléndido, fantástico
    5) (clever and expert: John's great at football.) excelente, buenísimo
    •
    - greatness
    great adj
    1. gran / grande
    2. gran / importante
    3. estupendo / fenomenal
    you look great! ¡te veo fenomenal!
    tr[greɪt]
    2 (considerable, profound, intense) grande; (before sing noun) gran
    ■ it gives me great pleasure to... tengo el gran placer de...
    3 (famous, important, outstanding) grande, importante; (before sing noun) gran, importante
    4 familiar (excellent, wonderful) estupendo,-a, fantástico,-a, sensacional, fabuloso,-a
    ■ it's great to see you! ¡me alegro mucho de verte!
    ■ how was the film? - great! ¿qué tal la película! - ¡fenomenal!
    ■ what a great idea! ¡qué idea más buena!
    ■ you great brute! ¡pedazo de animal!
    1 familiar muy bien, estupendamente, fenomenal
    1 (people) los grandes nombre masculino plural, la gente nombre femenino importante
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    to be no great shakes no ser gran cosa
    to go great guns ir a las mil maravillas, ir viento en popa
    the Great Barrier Reef la Gran Barrera de Coral
    great circle círculo máximo
    the Great War la Gran Guerra, la primera Guerra Mundial
    great ['greɪt] adj
    1) large: grande
    a great mountain: una montaña grande
    a great crowd: una gran muchedumbre
    2) intense: intenso, fuerte, grande
    great pain: gran dolor
    3) eminent: grande, eminente, distinguido
    a great poet: un gran poeta
    4) excellent, terrific: excelente, estupendo, fabuloso
    to have a great time: pasarlo en grande
    5)
    a great while : mucho tiempo
    adj.
    • enorme adj.
    • garrafal adj.
    • gran adj.
    • grande adj.
    • importante adj.
    • largo, -a adj.
    • magno, -a adj.
    • mucho, -a adj.
    • pistonudo, -a adj.
    • principal adj.
    • solemne adj.
    • vasto, -a adj.

    I greɪt
    1) (before n)
    a) ( large in size) (sing) gran (delante del n); (pl) grandes (delante del n)
    b) <number/quantity> (sing) gran (delante del n); (pl) grandes (delante del n)

    there's a dirty great hole in my sock — (BrE colloq) tengo un agujerazo en el calcetín (fam)

    2) (before n)
    a) ( important) <landowner/occasion> (sing) gran (delante del n); (pl) grandes (delante del n)
    b) (genuine, real) (before n) <friend/rival> (sing) gran (delante del n); (pl) grandes (delante del n)

    I'm in no great hurry — no tengo mucha prisa, no estoy muy apurado (AmL)

    you're a great help! — (colloq & iro) valiente ayuda la tuya! (iró)

    he's a great one for starting arguments — (colloq) es único para empezar discusiones!, para empezar discusiones es (como) mandado a hacer (CS fam)

    3) ( excellent) (colloq) <goal/movie/meal> sensacional, fabuloso

    he's a really great guy — es un tipo or (Esp tb) tío sensacional (fam)

    to be great AT something: she's great at organizing things/getting people together para organizar las cosas/juntar a la gente, no hay nadie como ella; he's great at mending things se da mucha maña para hacer arreglos; (as interj) (that's) great! — qué bien!, fenomenal!, bárbaro! (fam), estupendo! (fam)


    II
    noun ( outstanding person) (colloq) estrella f, grande mf

    III
    adverb (esp AmE colloq) fenomenal (fam)
    [ɡreɪt]
    1. ADJ
    (compar greater) (superl greatest)
    1) (=huge) (in size) [house, room, object] enorme, inmenso; (in amount, number) [effort, variety] grande; [shock, surprise] verdadero, enorme

    • she lived to a great age — vivió hasta una edad muy avanzada

    • I'll take great care of it — lo cuidaré mucho

    • he didn't say a great deal — no dijo mucho

    a great deal of time/money/effort — mucho tiempo/dinero/esfuerzo

    • with great difficulty — con gran or mucha dificultad

    • to a great extent — en gran parte

    • we had great fun — lo pasamos fenomenal

    • great heavens! — † ¡Cielo Santo! †, ¡Válgame el cielo!

    • to be a great help — ser de gran ayuda

    well, you've been a great help! — iro ¡vaya ayuda la tuya!, ¡pues sí que has sido una ayuda!

    • I'm in no great hurry, I'm not in any great hurry — no tengo mucha prisa

    • you great idiot! * — ¡pedazo de idiota! *

    • a great many people believe he was right — mucha gente cree que tenía razón

    • it was a great pity you didn't come — fue una verdadera pena que no vinieses

    • with great pleasure — con gran placer

    it's my great pleasure to introduce... — es un gran placer para mí presentar a...

    • great progress has been made — se han hecho grandes progresos

    • great Scott! — † ¡Cielo Santo! †, ¡Válgame el cielo!

    • the concert was a great success — el concierto fue un enorme éxito

    gun 1., 1)
    2) (=important) [achievement, occasion, event] grande

    • the great cultural achievements of the past — los grandes logros culturales del pasado

    • one of the great issues of the day — uno de los temas más importantes del día

    • everyone said she was destined for great things — todos decían que llegaría lejos

    • great work — (=masterpiece) obra f maestra

    3) (=outstanding) [person, nation, skill] grande

    • a player of great ability — un jugador de gran habilidad

    • she has a great eye for detail — tiene muy buen ojo para los detalles

    Frederick/Peter the Great — Federico/Pedro el Grande

    5) (=real) (as intensifier) grande

    • she is a great believer in hard work — es una gran partidaria del trabajo duro

    • she's a great one for antique shops — le encantan las tiendas de antigüedades, es una fanática de las tiendas de antigüedades

    he's a great one for criticizing others — es único para criticar a los demás, se las pinta solo para criticar a los demás *

    6) * (=excellent) [person, thing, idea] estupendo, genial *

    you were great! — ¡estuviste genial! *

    it's a great idea — es una idea estupenda, es una idea genial *

    "how was the movie?" - "it was great!" — -¿que tal fue la película? -¡genial! *

    (that's) great! — ¡eso es estupendo!

    wouldn't it be great to do that? — ¿no sería fabuloso or genial hacer eso?

    camping holidays are great for kids — las vacaciones en un camping son estupendas para los críos, las vacaciones en un camping son geniales para los críos *

    • she was just great about it — se lo tomó muy bien

    • he's great at football — juega estupendamente al fútbol

    • to feel great — sentirse fenómeno or fenomenal *

    • you look great! — (=attractive) ¡estás guapísimo!; (=healthy) ¡tienes un aspecto estupendo!

    • she's great on jazz — sabe un montón de jazz *

    • the great thing is that you don't have to iron it — lo mejor de todo es que no tienes que plancharlo

    7) (Bot, Zool) grande
    2. EXCL
    1) * (=excellent)

    (oh) great! — ¡fenómeno! *, ¡fenomenal!, ¡qué bien!

    2) iro

    (oh) great! that's all I need! — ¡maravilloso! ¡eso es lo que me faltaba!

    if that's what you want to believe, great! — si es eso lo que quieres creer, allá tú

    3.
    ADV
    4.
    N (=person) grande mf

    the great and the good — hum los abonados a las buenas causas

    5.
    CPD

    the Great Barrier Reef N — la Gran Barrera de Coral, el Gran Arrecife Coralino

    the Great Bear N — (Astron) la Osa Mayor

    great tit N — paro m grande, herrerillo m grande

    GREAT, BIG, LARGE
    "Grande" shortened to "gran"
    ► Gra nde must be shortened to gran before a singular noun of either gender:
    Great Britain (La) Gran Bretaña
    Position of "grande"
    ► Put gran/ grandes before the noun in the sense of "great":
    It's a great step forward in the search for peace Es un gran paso en la búsqueda de la paz
    He is a (very) great actor Es un gran actor ► In the sense of big or large, the adjective will precede the noun in the context of a general, subjective comment. However, when there is implicit or explicit comparison with other things or people that are physically bigger or smaller, it will follow the noun:
    It's a big problem Es un gran problema
    ... the difference in price between big flats and small ones...... la diferencia de precio entre los pisos grandes y pequeños...
    ... a certain type of large passenger plane...... cierto tipo de avión grande para el transporte de pasajeros... ► Compare the following examples:
    ... a great man...... un gran hombre...
    ... a big man...... un hombre grande... For further uses and examples, see great, big, large
    * * *

    I [greɪt]
    1) (before n)
    a) ( large in size) (sing) gran (delante del n); (pl) grandes (delante del n)
    b) <number/quantity> (sing) gran (delante del n); (pl) grandes (delante del n)

    there's a dirty great hole in my sock — (BrE colloq) tengo un agujerazo en el calcetín (fam)

    2) (before n)
    a) ( important) <landowner/occasion> (sing) gran (delante del n); (pl) grandes (delante del n)
    b) (genuine, real) (before n) <friend/rival> (sing) gran (delante del n); (pl) grandes (delante del n)

    I'm in no great hurry — no tengo mucha prisa, no estoy muy apurado (AmL)

    you're a great help! — (colloq & iro) valiente ayuda la tuya! (iró)

    he's a great one for starting arguments — (colloq) es único para empezar discusiones!, para empezar discusiones es (como) mandado a hacer (CS fam)

    3) ( excellent) (colloq) <goal/movie/meal> sensacional, fabuloso

    he's a really great guy — es un tipo or (Esp tb) tío sensacional (fam)

    to be great AT something: she's great at organizing things/getting people together para organizar las cosas/juntar a la gente, no hay nadie como ella; he's great at mending things se da mucha maña para hacer arreglos; (as interj) (that's) great! — qué bien!, fenomenal!, bárbaro! (fam), estupendo! (fam)


    II
    noun ( outstanding person) (colloq) estrella f, grande mf

    III
    adverb (esp AmE colloq) fenomenal (fam)

    English-spanish dictionary > great

  • 4 issue

    issue ['ɪʃu:]
    question ⇒ 1 (a) différend ⇒ 1 (b) numéro ⇒ 1 (c) distribution ⇒ 1 (d) délivrance ⇒ 1 (d) émission ⇒ 1 (d) prêt ⇒ 1 (d) issue ⇒ 1 (e) publier ⇒ 2 (a), 2 (c) sortir ⇒ 2 (a) délivrer ⇒ 2 (b) prêter ⇒ 2 (b) émettre ⇒ 2 (d) distribuer ⇒ 2 (e)
    1 noun
    (a) (matter, topic) question f, problème m;
    ∎ where do you stand on the abortion issue? quel est votre point de vue sur (la question de) l'avortement?;
    ∎ the issue was raised at the meeting le problème a été soulevé à la réunion;
    ∎ your personal feelings are not the issue vos sentiments personnels n'ont rien à voir là-dedans;
    ∎ that's not the issue ce n'est pas la question;
    ∎ it's become an international issue le problème a pris une dimension internationale;
    ∎ the important issues of the day les grands problèmes du moment;
    ∎ at issue en question;
    ∎ the point at issue is not the coming election le problème n'est pas l'élection à venir;
    ∎ her competence is not at issue sa compétence n'est pas en cause;
    ∎ to join issue with sb (about sth) discuter l'opinion de qn (au sujet de qch);
    ∎ to cloud or confuse the issue brouiller les cartes;
    ∎ to avoid or to duck or to evade the issue esquiver la question;
    ∎ to force the issue forcer la décision;
    ∎ Law issue (of fact/of law) question f ou point m de fait/de droit
    ∎ the subject has now become a real issue between us ce sujet est maintenant source de désaccord entre nous;
    ∎ to be at issue with sb over sth être en désaccord avec qn au sujet de qch;
    ∎ they are at issue with the Japanese over import quotas ils sont en désaccord avec les Japonais au sujet des quotas d'importations;
    ∎ to make an issue of sth monter qch en épingle;
    ∎ don't make such an issue of it! inutile d'en faire toute une histoire!;
    ∎ to take issue with sb/sth être en désaccord avec qn/qch;
    ∎ I take issue with him on only one point je suis en désaccord avec lui sur un point seulement;
    ∎ I would take issue with that je ne suis pas d'accord là-dessus
    (c) (edition → of newspaper, magazine etc) numéro m;
    ∎ the latest issue of the magazine le dernier numéro du magazine
    (d) (distribution → of supplies, equipment) distribution f; (→ of official document, passport) délivrance f; (→ of shares, money, stamps) émission f; (→ of library book) prêt m;
    ∎ date of issue date f de délivrance;
    ∎ standard issue modèle m standard;
    ∎ army issue modèle m de l'armée
    (e) formal (result, outcome) issue f, résultat m;
    ∎ I hope your request has a favourable issue j'espère que votre demande connaîtra une issue ou recevra une réponse favorable;
    ∎ Law issue (of fact/law) conclusion f
    (f) archaic or Law (progeny) descendance f, progéniture f;
    ∎ he died without issue il est mort sans héritiers
    (g) Medicine (of blood, pus) décharge f
    (a) (book, newspaper) publier, sortir; (record) sortir;
    ∎ the magazine is issued on Wednesdays le magazine sort ou paraît le mercredi
    (b) (official document, passport) délivrer; Law (warrant, writ, summons) lancer; (library book) prêter;
    ∎ where was the passport issued? où le passeport a-t-il été délivré?
    (c) (statement, proclamation) publier;
    ∎ the government has issued a denial le gouvernement a publié un démenti
    (d) (shares, money, stamps) émettre; (letter of credit) fournir;
    ∎ the Bank of Scotland issues its own notes la Bank of Scotland émet ses propres billets;
    ∎ to issue a draft on sb fournir une traite sur qn
    (e) (distribute → supplies, tickets etc) distribuer;
    ∎ the magazine is issued free to every household le magazine est distribué gratuitement à ou dans tous les foyers;
    ∎ we were all issued with rations on nous a distribué à tous des rations;
    ∎ each man will be issued with two uniforms chaque homme recevra deux uniformes;
    ∎ no books will be issued after eight p.m. le service de prêt ferme à vingt heures
    (a) (come or go out) sortir ( from de); (blood, water) s'écouler ( from de); (smoke) s'échapper ( from de);
    ∎ delicious smells issued from the kitchen des odeurs délicieuses provenaient de la cuisine
    (b) (result, originate)
    ∎ to issue from provenir de;
    ∎ all our difficulties issue from that first mistake c'est de cette première erreur que proviennent tous nos ennuis;
    ∎ formal the children issuing from this marriage les enfants issus de ce mariage
    ►► Administration issue card carte f (de) sortie de stock;
    Finance issue department service m des émissions;
    Finance issue premium prime f d'émission;
    Finance issue price prix m d'émission, valeur f d'émission
    literary jaillir

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > issue

  • 5 concern

    1. transitive verb
    1) (affect) betreffen

    so far as... is concerned — was... betrifft

    ‘to whom it may concern’ — ≈ "Bestätigung"; (on certificate, testimonial) ≈ "Zeugnis"

    concern oneself with or about something — sich mit etwas befassen

    3) (trouble)

    the news/her health greatly concerns me — ich bin über diese Nachricht tief beunruhigt/ihre Gesundheit bereitet mir große Sorgen

    2. noun
    2) (anxiety) Besorgnis, die; (interest) Interesse, das
    3) (matter) Angelegenheit, die
    4) (firm) Unternehmen, das
    * * *
    [kən'sə:n] 1. verb
    1) (to have to do with: This order doesn't concern us; So far as I'm concerned, you can do what you like.) betreffen
    2) ((with for or about) to make (usually oneself) uneasy: Don't concern yourself about her.) beunruhigen
    3) ((with with or in) to interest (oneself) in: He doesn't concern himself with unimportant details.) sich beschäftigen
    2. noun
    1) (something that concerns or belongs to one: His problems are not my concern.) die Angelegenheit
    2) (anxiety: The condition of the patient is giving rise to concern.) die Sorge
    3) (a business: a shoe-manufacturing concern.) das Unternehmen
    •
    - academic.ru/15009/concerning">concerning
    * * *
    con·cern
    [kənˈsɜ:n, AM -ˈsɜ:rn]
    I. n
    1. (interest) Anliegen nt, Interesse nt; (preoccupation) Sorge f
    the company's sole \concern is to ensure the safety of its employees das Unternehmen ist einzig und allein um die Gewährleistung der Sicherheit seiner Mitarbeiter besorgt
    his \concern to appear sophisticated amused everyone sein [eifriges] Bemühen, kultiviert zu wirken, amüsierte alle
    major \concern Hauptanliegen nt
    2. (worry) Sorge f, Besorgnis f ( about um + akk)
    \concern for the safety of the two missing teenagers is growing die Sorge um die beiden vermissten Teenager wächst beständig
    my \concern is that you're not getting your work done ich mache mir Sorgen, dass du deine Arbeit nicht schaffst
    I have a matter of some \concern that I would like to talk to you about es gibt da ein Problem, über das ich gern mit Ihnen sprechen würde
    there's no cause for \concern es besteht kein Grund zur Sorge
    to give rise to \concern Besorgnis erregend sein
    3. (business) Angelegenheit f
    it's no \concern of mine! das ist nicht meine Angelegenheit!
    that's none of your \concern das geht dich nichts an
    financial \concerns Finanzangelegenheiten
    public \concern öffentliche Angelegenheit
    4. (importance) Wichtigkeit f, Bedeutung f
    ▪ to be of \concern to sb für jdn von Bedeutung sein
    a question of common \concern eine Frage von allgemeinem Interesse
    5. (relation) Beziehung f
    do you have any \concern with telecommunications? haben Sie etwas mit dem Fernmeldewesen zu tun?
    6. (share) Anteil m
    to have a \concern in a business an einem Geschäft beteiligt sein
    7. COMM Konzern m, Unternehmen nt
    family \concern Familienunternehmen nt
    a going \concern ein florierendes Unternehmen
    industrial \concern Industriekonzern m
    8. ( pej fam: gadget) Sache f, Ding nt
    II. vt
    1. (apply to)
    ▪ to \concern sb jdn angehen [o betreffen]; (affect) jdn betreffen
    as far as I'm \concerned was mich anbelangt [o betrifft
    2. (be sb's business)
    ▪ to \concern sb jdn angehen
    to whom it may \concern (certificate) Bescheinigung; (reference) Zeugnis (formelhafte Anrede bei amtlichen Verlautbarungen, die keinen konkreten Adressaten haben)
    ▪ to \concern oneself with sth sich akk mit etw dat befassen
    you don't need to \concern yourself with this matter Sie brauchen sich um diese Angelegenheit nicht zu kümmern
    4. (be about)
    ▪ to \concern sb/sth von jdm/etw dat handeln
    ▪ to be \concerned with sth von etw dat handeln, etw [thematisch] behandeln
    ▪ to \concern sb jdn beunruhigen
    ▪ to \concern oneself sich dat Sorgen machen
    * * *
    [kən'sɜːn]
    1. n
    1)

    (= relation, connection) do you have any concern with banking? — haben Sie etwas mit dem Bankwesen zu tun?

    2) (= business, affair) Angelegenheit(en pl) f; (= matter of interest and importance to sb) Anliegen nt
    3) (COMM) Konzern m → going
    See:
    → going
    4) (= share) Beteiligung f
    5) (= anxiety) Sorge f, Besorgnis f

    the situation in the Middle East is causing concern — die Lage im Nahen Osten ist besorgniserregend

    there's some/no cause for concern — es besteht Grund/kein Grund zur Sorge

    he showed great concern for your safety — er war or zeigte sich (geh)

    don't you feel any concern for the starving millions? — berührt Sie die Tatsache, dass Millionen am Verhungern sind, überhaupt nicht?

    6) (= importance) Bedeutung f

    issues of national concern — Fragen pl von nationalem Interesse

    to be of little/great concern to sb — jdm nicht/sehr wichtig sein

    2. vt
    1) (= be about) handeln von

    the last chapter is concerned with... — das letzte Kapitel behandelt...

    2) (= be the business of, involve) angehen, betreffen; (= affect) betreffen

    that doesn't concern you — das betrifft Sie nicht; (as snub) das geht Sie nichts an

    the countries concerned with oil production — die Länder, die mit der Ölproduktion zu tun haben

    where money/honour is concerned — wenn es um Geld/die Ehre geht

    is it important? – not as far as I'm concerned — ist es denn wichtig? – was mich betrifft nicht

    as far as he is concerned it's just another job, but... — für ihn ist es nur ein anderer Job, aber...

    as far as I'm concerned you can do what you like — von mir aus kannst du tun und lassen, was du willst

    where we are concerned — wo es um uns geht

    who are the people concerned in this report? — wer sind die Leute, um die es in diesem Bericht geht?

    the persons concerned —

    my brother is the most closely concerned the men concerned in the robbery — mein Bruder ist am meisten davon betroffen die in den Überfall verwickelten Männer

    3)

    (= interest) he is only concerned with facts — ihn interessieren nur die Fakten

    I'm not concerned now or I don't want to concern myself now with the economic aspect of the problem — mir geht es jetzt nicht um den ökonomischen Aspekt des Problems

    4)

    (= have at heart) we should be concerned more with or about quality — Qualität sollte uns ein größeres Anliegen sein

    he's not at all concerned with or about her well-being —

    5)

    (= worry usu pass) to be concerned about sth — sich (dat) um etw Sorgen machen, um etw besorgt sein

    I was very concerned to hear about your illness — ich habe mir Sorgen gemacht, als ich von Ihrer Krankheit hörte

    he was concerned by the news —

    I am concerned to hear that... — es beunruhigt mich, dass...

    * * *
    concern [kənˈsɜːn; US -ˈsɜrn]
    A v/t
    1. betreffen, angehen, sich beziehen auf (akk):
    it does not concern me es betrifft mich nicht, es geht mich nichts an;
    as far as I am concerned soweit es mich betrifft, was mich anbelangt;
    to whom it may concern an alle, die es angeht (Überschrift auf Attesten etc)
    2. von Wichtigkeit oder Belang oder Interesse sein für, angehen:
    this problem concerns us all dieses Problem geht uns alle an oder ist für uns alle wichtig;
    your reputation is concerned es geht um deinen Ruf
    3. beunruhigen:
    don’t let that concern you mache dir deswegen keine Sorgen;
    be concerned about ( oder at) sich Sorgen machen wegen;
    be concerned for sb’s safety um jemandes Sicherheit besorgt sein; → concerned 5
    4. interessieren, beschäftigen:
    concern o.s. with ( oder about) sich beschäftigen oder befassen mit;
    be concerned in a plot in eine Verschwörung verwickelt sein; → concerned 2, 3
    B s
    1. Angelegenheit f, Sache f:
    that is your concern das ist Ihre Sache;
    that is no concern of mine das geht mich nichts an;
    the concerns of the nation die Belange der Nation
    2. Geschäft n, Firma f, Unternehmen n:
    first concern Firma, die noch in den Händen der Gründer ist;
    a) ein gut gehendes Unternehmen,
    b) fig eine gut funktionierende Sache
    3. Unruhe f, Sorge f, Besorgnis f (at, about, for wegen, um):
    there is concern es herrscht Besorgnis;
    with deep concern tief beunruhigt
    4. Wichtigkeit f:
    be of no small concern nicht ganz unbedeutend sein, sehr wichtig sein;
    a matter of national concern ein nationales Anliegen
    5. Beziehung f ( with zu):
    have no concern with a matter mit einer Sache nichts zu tun haben
    6. (at, about, for, in, with) Teilnahme f (an dat), Rücksicht f (auf akk), Anteil m (an dat), Interesse n (für):
    feel a concern for Teilnahme empfinden für, sich interessieren für
    7. umg Ding n, Sache f, Geschichte f
    * * *
    1. transitive verb
    1) (affect) betreffen

    so far as... is concerned — was... betrifft

    ‘to whom it may concern’ — ≈ "Bestätigung"; (on certificate, testimonial) ≈ "Zeugnis"

    concern oneself with or about something — sich mit etwas befassen

    the news/her health greatly concerns me — ich bin über diese Nachricht tief beunruhigt/ihre Gesundheit bereitet mir große Sorgen

    2. noun
    2) (anxiety) Besorgnis, die; (interest) Interesse, das
    3) (matter) Angelegenheit, die
    4) (firm) Unternehmen, das
    * * *
    (at, about, for) n.
    Sorge -n (wegen, um) f.
    Unruhe -n f. (with) n.
    Beziehung (zu) f. n.
    Angelegenheit f.
    Anteil -e m.
    Besorgnis f.
    Ding -e n.
    Firma Firmen f.
    Geschichte f.
    Geschäft -e n.
    Interesse n.
    Rücksicht f.
    Sache -n f.
    Teilnahme f.
    Unternehmen n.
    Wichtigkeit f. v.
    betreffen v.
    zustimmen v.

    English-german dictionary > concern

  • 6 Empire, Portuguese overseas

    (1415-1975)
       Portugal was the first Western European state to establish an early modern overseas empire beyond the Mediterranean and perhaps the last colonial power to decolonize. A vast subject of complexity that is full of myth as well as debatable theories, the history of the Portuguese overseas empire involves the story of more than one empire, the question of imperial motives, the nature of Portuguese rule, and the results and consequences of empire, including the impact on subject peoples as well as on the mother country and its society, Here, only the briefest account of a few such issues can be attempted.
       There were various empires or phases of empire after the capture of the Moroccan city of Ceuta in 1415. There were at least three Portuguese empires in history: the First empire (1415-1580), the Second empire (1580-1640 and 1640-1822), and the Third empire (1822-1975).
       With regard to the second empire, the so-called Phillipine period (1580-1640), when Portugal's empire was under Spanish domination, could almost be counted as a separate era. During that period, Portugal lost important parts of its Asian holdings to England and also sections of its colonies of Brazil, Angola, and West Africa to Holland's conquests. These various empires could be characterized by the geography of where Lisbon invested its greatest efforts and resources to develop territories and ward off enemies.
       The first empire (1415-1580) had two phases. First came the African coastal phase (1415-97), when the Portuguese sought a foothold in various Moroccan cities but then explored the African coast from Morocco to past the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa. While colonization and sugar farming were pursued in the Atlantic islands, as well as in the islands in the Gulf of Guinea like São Tomé and Príncipe, for the most part the Portuguese strategy was to avoid commitments to defending or peopling lands on the African continent. Rather, Lisbon sought a seaborne trade empire, in which the Portuguese could profit from exploiting trade and resources (such as gold) along the coasts and continue exploring southward to seek a sea route to Portuguese India. The second phase of the first empire (1498-1580) began with the discovery of the sea route to Asia, thanks to Vasco da Gama's first voyage in 1497-99, and the capture of strong points, ports, and trading posts in order to enforce a trade monopoly between Asia and Europe. This Asian phase produced the greatest revenues of empire Portugal had garnered, yet ended when Spain conquered Portugal and commanded her empire as of 1580.
       Portugal's second overseas empire began with Spanish domination and ran to 1822, when Brazil won her independence from Portugal. This phase was characterized largely by Brazilian dominance of imperial commitment, wealth in minerals and other raw materials from Brazil, and the loss of a significant portion of her African and Asian coastal empire to Holland and Great Britain. A sketch of Portugal's imperial losses either to native rebellions or to imperial rivals like Britain and Holland follows:
       • Morocco (North Africa) (sample only)
       Arzila—Taken in 1471; evacuated in 1550s; lost to Spain in 1580, which returned city to a sultan.
       Ceuta—Taken in 1415; lost to Spain in 1640 (loss confirmed in 1668 treaty with Spain).
       • Tangiers—Taken in 15th century; handed over to England in 1661 as part of Catherine of Braganza's dowry to King Charles II.
       • West Africa
       • Fort/Castle of São Jorge da Mina, Gold Coast (in what is now Ghana)—Taken in 1480s; lost to Holland in 1630s.
       • Middle East
       Socotra-isle—Conquered in 1507; fort abandoned in 1511; used as water resupply stop for India fleet.
       Muscat—Conquered in 1501; lost to Persians in 1650.
       Ormuz—Taken, 1505-15 under Albuquerque; lost to England, which gave it to Persia in the 17th century.
       Aden (entry to Red Sea) — Unsuccessfully attacked by Portugal (1513-30); taken by Turks in 1538.
       • India
       • Ceylon (Sri Lanka)—Taken by 1516; lost to Dutch after 1600.
       • Bombay—Taken in 16th century; given to England in 1661 treaty as part of Catherine of Braganza's dowry for Charles II.
       • East Indies
       • Moluccas—Taken by 1520; possession confirmed in 1529 Saragossa treaty with Spain; lost to Dutch after 1600; only East Timor remaining.
       After the restoration of Portuguese independence from Spain in 1640, Portugal proceeded to revive and strengthen the Anglo- Portuguese Alliance, with international aid to fight off further Spanish threats to Portugal and drive the Dutch invaders out of Brazil and Angola. While Portugal lost its foothold in West Africa at Mina to the Dutch, dominion in Angola was consolidated. The most vital part of the imperial economy was a triangular trade: slaves from West Africa and from the coasts of Congo and Angola were shipped to plantations in Brazil; raw materials (sugar, tobacco, gold, diamonds, dyes) were sent to Lisbon; Lisbon shipped Brazil colonists and hardware. Part of Portugal's War of Restoration against Spain (1640-68) and its reclaiming of Brazil and Angola from Dutch intrusions was financed by the New Christians (Jews converted to Christianity after the 1496 Manueline order of expulsion of Jews) who lived in Portugal, Holland and other low countries, France, and Brazil. If the first empire was mainly an African coastal and Asian empire, the second empire was primarily a Brazilian empire.
       Portugal's third overseas empire began upon the traumatic independence of Brazil, the keystone of the Lusitanian enterprise, in 1822. The loss of Brazil greatly weakened Portugal both as a European power and as an imperial state, for the scattered remainder of largely coastal, poor, and uncolonized territories that stretched from the bulge of West Africa to East Timor in the East Indies and Macau in south China were more of a financial liability than an asset. Only two small territories balanced their budgets occasionally or made profits: the cocoa islands of São Tomé and Príncipe in the Gulf of Guinea and tiny Macau, which lost much of its advantage as an entrepot between the West and the East when the British annexed neighboring Hong Kong in 1842. The others were largely burdens on the treasury. The African colonies were strapped by a chronic economic problem: at a time when the slave trade and then slavery were being abolished under pressures from Britain and other Western powers, the economies of Guinea- Bissau, São Tomé/Príncipe, Angola, and Mozambique were totally dependent on revenues from the slave trade and slavery. During the course of the 19th century, Lisbon began a program to reform colonial administration in a newly rejuvenated African empire, where most of the imperial efforts were expended, by means of replacing the slave trade and slavery, with legitimate economic activities.
       Portugal participated in its own early version of the "Scramble" for Africa's interior during 1850-69, but discovered that the costs of imperial expansion were too high to allow effective occupation of the hinterlands. After 1875, Portugal participated in the international "Scramble for Africa" and consolidated its holdings in west and southern Africa, despite the failure of the contra-costa (to the opposite coast) plan, which sought to link up the interiors of Angola and Mozambique with a corridor in central Africa. Portugal's expansion into what is now Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe (eastern section) in 1885-90 was thwarted by its oldest ally, Britain, under pressure from interest groups in South Africa, Scotland, and England. All things considered, Portugal's colonizing resources and energies were overwhelmed by the African empire it possessed after the frontier-marking treaties of 1891-1906. Lisbon could barely administer the massive area of five African colonies, whose total area comprised about 8 percent of the area of the colossal continent. The African territories alone were many times the size of tiny Portugal and, as of 1914, Portugal was the third colonial power in terms of size of area possessed in the world.
       The politics of Portugal's empire were deceptive. Lisbon remained obsessed with the fear that rival colonial powers, especially Germany and Britain, would undermine and then dismantle her African empire. This fear endured well into World War II. In developing and keeping her potentially rich African territories (especially mineral-rich Angola and strategically located Mozambique), however, the race against time was with herself and her subject peoples. Two major problems, both chronic, prevented Portugal from effective colonization (i.e., settling) and development of her African empire: the economic weakness and underdevelopment of the mother country and the fact that the bulk of Portuguese emigration after 1822 went to Brazil, Venezuela, the United States, and France, not to the colonies. These factors made it difficult to consolidate imperial control until it was too late; that is, until local African nationalist movements had organized and taken the field in insurgency wars that began in three of the colonies during the years 1961-64.
       Portugal's belated effort to revitalize control and to develop, in the truest sense of the word, Angola and Mozambique after 1961 had to be set against contemporary events in Europe, Africa, and Asia. While Portugal held on to a backward empire, other European countries like Britain, France, and Belgium were rapidly decolonizing their empires. Portugal's failure or unwillingness to divert the large streams of emigrants to her empire after 1850 remained a constant factor in this question. Prophetic were the words of the 19th-century economist Joaquim Oliveira Martins, who wrote in 1880 that Brazil was a better colony for Portugal than Africa and that the best colony of all would have been Portugal itself. As of the day of the Revolution of 25 April 1974, which sparked the final process of decolonization of the remainder of Portugal's third overseas empire, the results of the colonization program could be seen to be modest compared to the numbers of Portuguese emigrants outside the empire. Moreover, within a year, of some 600,000 Portuguese residing permanently in Angola and Mozambique, all but a few thousand had fled to South Africa or returned to Portugal.
       In 1974 and 1975, most of the Portuguese empire was decolonized or, in the case of East Timor, invaded and annexed by a foreign power before it could consolidate its independence. Only historic Macau, scheduled for transfer to the People's Republic of China in 1999, remained nominally under Portuguese control as a kind of footnote to imperial history. If Portugal now lacked a conventional overseas empire and was occupied with the challenges of integration in the European Union (EU), Lisbon retained another sort of informal dependency that was a new kind of empire: the empire of her scattered overseas Portuguese communities from North America to South America. Their numbers were at least six times greater than that of the last settlers of the third empire.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Empire, Portuguese overseas

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     ■ Smith, E. E. (1990). Thinking: Introduction. In D. N. Osherson & E. E. Smith (Eds.), Thinking. An invitation to cognitive science. (Vol. 3, pp. 1-2). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
     ■ Socrates. (1958). Meno. In E. H. Warmington & P. O. Rouse (Eds.), Great dialogues of Plato W.H.D. Rouse (Trans.). New York: New American Library. (Original publication date unknown.)
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    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Bibliography

  • 8 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

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